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Despite her achievement, Catherine the Great (Catherine II) had her share of failures. These included Ruthlessness and the Emergence of Assignation rubles.

Ruthlessness of Catherine the Great

Just as her ambition became vanity, Catherine II’s admirers sometimes noticed that she lacked something – charity, mercy and human sympathy. Indisputably, however, for the first time since Peter the Great, Russia had acquired a sovereign who worked day and night, paying personal attention to all kinds of matters, great and small.

In 1764, Catherine placed her former lover on the Polish throne. In the idea of partitioning Poland came from the Prussian king Frederick the Great, Catherine took a leading role in carrying this out in the 1790s. In 1768 she formally became protector of the Polish–Lithuanian Common wealth, which provoked an anti-Russian uprising in Poland. After smashing the uprising she established a system of government fully controlled by the Russian Empire through a Permanent Council under the supervision of her ambassadors and envoys (Max, 2005).

Emergence of Assignation rubles in the reign of Catherine the Great

This kind of notes emerged due to large government spending on military needs, leading to a shortage of silver in the treasury. In foreign trade, almost all calculations were conducted exclusively in silver and gold coins. Assignation ruble circulated on equal footing with the silver ruble and there was an ongoing market exchange rate for these two currencies. The use of these notes continued until 1849 (Rodger, 2005).

Conclusion

Catherine II did a lot for her people and nation. Being a woman she used all of her knowledge to change the lives of many people in Russia. She promoted education by placing great emphasis on proper and effectual education of both sexes she also showed her greatness by enlightening the nation through creation of several hospitals.

Though ruthless, she led her nation peacefully by signing treaties and liberalization. She prepared her Instructions, that is, a set of principles which reflected her opinions on the political and legal structure desirable for Russia.

She restored the pride of her people by recovering lands that had been taken over by their enemies. Through her, Russians repossessed the Black Sea, to obtain their natural southern border, and reclaimed the fertile lands lost to the Asiatic (Rodger, 2005).

References

Rodger N.A.M (2005) Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815. London, p.328

Max (2011) if these walls….Smolny’s Repeated Roles in History, Russian Life (2006):19-24

Despite her achievement, Catherine the Great (Catherine II) had her share of failures. These included Ruthlessness and the Emergence of Assignation rubles.

Ruthlessness of Catherine the Great

Just as her ambition became vanity, Catherine II’s admirers sometimes noticed that she lacked something – charity, mercy and human sympathy. Indisputably, however, for the first time since Peter the Great, Russia had acquired a sovereign who worked day and night, paying personal attention to all kinds of matters, great and small.

In 1764, Catherine placed her former lover on the Polish throne. In the idea of partitioning Poland came from the Prussian king Frederick the Great, Catherine took a leading role in carrying this out in the 1790s. In 1768 she formally became protector of the Polish–Lithuanian Common wealth, which provoked an anti-Russian uprising in Poland. After smashing the uprising she established a system of government fully controlled by the Russian Empire through a Permanent Council under the supervision of her ambassadors and envoys (Max, 2005).

Emergence of Assignation rubles in the reign of Catherine the Great

This kind of notes emerged due to large government spending on military needs, leading to a shortage of silver in the treasury. In foreign trade, almost all calculations were conducted exclusively in silver and gold coins. Assignation ruble circulated on equal footing with the silver ruble and there was an ongoing market exchange rate for these two currencies. The use of these notes continued until 1849 (Rodger, 2005).

Conclusion

Catherine II did a lot for her people and nation. Being a woman she used all of her knowledge to change the lives of many people in Russia. She promoted education by placing great emphasis on proper and effectual education of both sexes she also showed her greatness by enlightening the nation through creation of several hospitals.

Though ruthless, she led her nation peacefully by signing treaties and liberalization. She prepared her Instructions, that is, a set of principles which reflected her opinions on the political and legal structure desirable for Russia.

She restored the pride of her people by recovering lands that had been taken over by their enemies. Through her, Russians repossessed the Black Sea, to obtain their natural southern border, and reclaimed the fertile lands lost to the Asiatic (Rodger, 2005).

References

Rodger N.A.M (2005) Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815. London, p.328

Max (2011) if these walls….Smolny’s Repeated Roles in History, Russian Life (2006):19-24

Something needs to be done in order to stop this deteriorating factor of brain drain in the country. This article briefly presents a discussion on the ways through which brain drain can be reduced.

Mutual Agreement

A mutual agreement has to be reached by the developed and the developing nations on how to reduce the pull and push factors that make professionals to flee Africa and Asia to Europe and America. Secondly, powerful nationals like the US should stop using special visas and packages to attract talented professionals from their native countries. Thirdly, African nations should try and understand the contributions of professionals by improving their terms of service.

Updating school curriculums

School Curriculums should be updated to reflect the African needs for the 21st century. African schools produce more graduates in the arts and humanities than in science and engineering. Since science and technology can increase the standards of living, it makes more sense to produce more scientists and engineers (Emeagwali, 1999). As such, school curriculum should be re-designed to meet the industrial needs.

Good governance

Good governance at the national and international level, especially maintenance of reasonable security for peoples’ lives and property is essential for economic progress. Thus, withholding political and economical emigrants, who blame their government’s failure for political unrest and stagnant economic growth, is possible if good governance is maintained.

Quality Education

Education plays a powerful role especially in the growing problems of international migration. Therefore, offering quality education in a country and expanding a better educational infrastructure can definitely prevent emigrants who are seeking a higher education abroad.

Withholding certificates

Seeking alternative measures for return of warranty from the beneficiaries, such as the withholding of academic degrees until the graduates return and are willing to serve the people could serve as another considerable alternative (Emeagwali, 1999).

Taxing emigrants

Taxing emigrants who are indigenously trained in home countries could also serve as a measure. This is however a sensitive issue and may sound absurd, and may potentially infringe on the basic human right and freedom to choose the nature and location of individuals where to live and where to work. Thus, it must be agreed upon the international community and international laws.

Conclusion

The primary cause of brain drain is the difference among countries in economic and professional opportunities, hence the imperative to move from one area to another to improve their social and economic status. Brain drain has a direct relationship to levels of education attained, and access to training and employment opportunities abroad. Economic globalization, lack of development and political instability, industrialized nations policies, and linguistics and historical ties are major factors that account for Third World movement of intellectual, skilled laborers to developed countries in general. Existence of brain drain in a country has negative impacts on the economy of a country thus much needs to be done so as to save a country’s economy from deteriorating due to lack of adequate skilled labor available in the market.

References

Emeagwali, P. (1999) Brain Drain from the African Continent, Retrieved 7^th September, 2011 from http://emeagwali.com/interviews/brain-drain/brain drain-of-african-scientists-the-world-today-bbc-british-broadcasting-corporation.html.

Something needs to be done in order to stop this deteriorating factor of brain drain in the country. This article briefly presents a discussion on the ways through which brain drain can be reduced.

Mutual Agreement

A mutual agreement has to be reached by the developed and the developing nations on how to reduce the pull and push factors that make professionals to flee Africa and Asia to Europe and America. Secondly, powerful nationals like the US should stop using special visas and packages to attract talented professionals from their native countries. Thirdly, African nations should try and understand the contributions of professionals by improving their terms of service.

Updating school curriculums

School Curriculums should be updated to reflect the African needs for the 21st century. African schools produce more graduates in the arts and humanities than in science and engineering. Since science and technology can increase the standards of living, it makes more sense to produce more scientists and engineers (Emeagwali, 1999). As such, school curriculum should be re-designed to meet the industrial needs.

Good governance

Good governance at the national and international level, especially maintenance of reasonable security for peoples’ lives and property is essential for economic progress. Thus, withholding political and economical emigrants, who blame their government’s failure for political unrest and stagnant economic growth, is possible if good governance is maintained.

Quality Education

Education plays a powerful role especially in the growing problems of international migration. Therefore, offering quality education in a country and expanding a better educational infrastructure can definitely prevent emigrants who are seeking a higher education abroad.

Withholding certificates

Seeking alternative measures for return of warranty from the beneficiaries, such as the withholding of academic degrees until the graduates return and are willing to serve the people could serve as another considerable alternative (Emeagwali, 1999).

Taxing emigrants

Taxing emigrants who are indigenously trained in home countries could also serve as a measure. This is however a sensitive issue and may sound absurd, and may potentially infringe on the basic human right and freedom to choose the nature and location of individuals where to live and where to work. Thus, it must be agreed upon the international community and international laws.

Conclusion

The primary cause of brain drain is the difference among countries in economic and professional opportunities, hence the imperative to move from one area to another to improve their social and economic status. Brain drain has a direct relationship to levels of education attained, and access to training and employment opportunities abroad. Economic globalization, lack of development and political instability, industrialized nations policies, and linguistics and historical ties are major factors that account for Third World movement of intellectual, skilled laborers to developed countries in general. Existence of brain drain in a country has negative impacts on the economy of a country thus much needs to be done so as to save a country’s economy from deteriorating due to lack of adequate skilled labor available in the market.

References

Emeagwali, P. (1999) Brain Drain from the African Continent, Retrieved 7^th September, 2011 from http://emeagwali.com/interviews/brain-drain/brain drain-of-african-scientists-the-world-today-bbc-british-broadcasting-corporation.html.

This article explores the dialogue and explanation as teaching methods in Adult Education. Adult education usually involves one-on-one conversation in order for them to understand concepts.

Dialogue Method of Teaching Adults
Dialogue can get out of hand unless ground rules are set. These ground rules might include; learners raising their hand and wait for permission to air their views and not  jumping in and giving views which in most cases might result in noise, or the other ground rule might be for the learners to wait until they are picked upon by their teacher to express their views. It is also important to ask solicit opposing view-points which encourages participation (Reinsmith, 1994).

Dialogue doesn’t have to be confined to the classroom. The internet offers wonderful opportunities for additional dialogue. The Internet allows us to extend cooperative problem solving outside of the immediate community of adult learners to a multicultural community.

Explanation Method of Teaching Adults
Explaining as a teaching method in adult education is form similar to lecturing. Lecturing is teaching by giving a discourse on a specific subject that is open to the adult learners, usually given in the classroom. This can also be associated with modeling whre by this is used as a visual aid to learning. Adult learners can visualize an object or problem, then use reasoning and hypothesis to determine an answer.

In a lecture a student has the opportunity to tackle two types of learning. Not only can explaining (lecture) help an adult learner through the speech of the teacher, but if the teacher is to include visuals in form of overheads or slide shows, his/her lecture can have duality. Although an adult learner might only profit substantially from one form of teaching, all adult learners profit from the different types of learning. (Brookfield 1986).

There are various methods used in teaching adult learners the major ones has been discussed in this article. However there are various other methods that can still be used to teach adult learners this include Scaffolding which involves empowering students with their own authority for instance giving a task which they need to accomplish. Praxis which involves the idea of doing while learning, constructivism is another method for teaching adults where learners gain deep understanding when they act on new information with their present knowledge and resolve any discrepancies which arise.

References
Brookfield, S D. (1986). Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning, Jossey-Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, 1986

Reinsmith W.A. (1994). Two Great Professors: Formidable Intellects with Affection for
Students, College Teaching, Vol. 42, No. 4, Fall.

This article explores the dialogue and explanation as teaching methods in Adult Education. Adult education usually involves one-on-one conversation in order for them to understand concepts.

Dialogue Method of Teaching Adults
Dialogue can get out of hand unless ground rules are set. These ground rules might include; learners raising their hand and wait for permission to air their views and not  jumping in and giving views which in most cases might result in noise, or the other ground rule might be for the learners to wait until they are picked upon by their teacher to express their views. It is also important to ask solicit opposing view-points which encourages participation (Reinsmith, 1994).

Dialogue doesn’t have to be confined to the classroom. The internet offers wonderful opportunities for additional dialogue. The Internet allows us to extend cooperative problem solving outside of the immediate community of adult learners to a multicultural community.

Explanation Method of Teaching Adults
Explaining as a teaching method in adult education is form similar to lecturing. Lecturing is teaching by giving a discourse on a specific subject that is open to the adult learners, usually given in the classroom. This can also be associated with modeling whre by this is used as a visual aid to learning. Adult learners can visualize an object or problem, then use reasoning and hypothesis to determine an answer.

In a lecture a student has the opportunity to tackle two types of learning. Not only can explaining (lecture) help an adult learner through the speech of the teacher, but if the teacher is to include visuals in form of overheads or slide shows, his/her lecture can have duality. Although an adult learner might only profit substantially from one form of teaching, all adult learners profit from the different types of learning. (Brookfield 1986).

There are various methods used in teaching adult learners the major ones has been discussed in this article. However there are various other methods that can still be used to teach adult learners this include Scaffolding which involves empowering students with their own authority for instance giving a task which they need to accomplish. Praxis which involves the idea of doing while learning, constructivism is another method for teaching adults where learners gain deep understanding when they act on new information with their present knowledge and resolve any discrepancies which arise.

References
Brookfield, S D. (1986). Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning, Jossey-Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, 1986

Reinsmith W.A. (1994). Two Great Professors: Formidable Intellects with Affection for
Students, College Teaching, Vol. 42, No. 4, Fall.

Over the last three decades, Kenya and many other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced rapid emigration to the developed world. Kenya is one of the African countries that has so much been affected by brain drain. This article gives an overview of brain drain in Kenya.

In Kenya, students move every year to go and study abroad but they never return back after attaining the appropriate education. They get jobs there and fail to return. Professions also move in search of jobs that pay well as compared to Kenyan jobs. More than a million Kenyan professionals live and work abroad, making the country one of the most heavily drained in Africa. Statistics released by the Government show that between 500,000 and 1.8 million Kenyans work overseas, although their skills are much needed locally (Siringi & Kimani, 2005).

Although more than 30,000 Kenyans leave for higher studies overseas, less than 9,000 of them return home on completing their learning. According to Kirui, (2005) when highly skilled people leave the country, or those who have acquired high skills do not return, it poses serious brain drain, robbing the country of essential human capacity to help in socio-economic development.

Statistics also show that 37,724 African students were enrolled in colleges and universities in the United States in 2001/2002. Some 18.8% of this students were Kenyan students. Of the 15,331 East African students from 19 countries enrolled during that same period (Kaba, 2005).

So many Kenyans have moved from their homeland to other countries. In fact, one can find Kenyans today in all parts of the developed world or rich nations, from Australia to Canada. As of 2001, there were 47,000 Kenyans in the United States, 20,600 in Canada, 15,000 in the United Kingdom, 6,900 in Australia, 5,200 in Germany and 1,300 in Sweden (Okoth, 2003).

The primary cause of Brain Drain in Kenya is the difference among countries in economic and professional opportunities, hence the imperative to move from one area to another to improve their social and economic status. Brain drain has a direct relationship to levels of education attained, and access to training and employment opportunities abroad.

Further Reading

Chu, J. (2004) How to Plug Europe’s Brain Drain, TIME, Retrieved 7^th September, 2011 from http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/

Siringi, S. (2001) Kenya government promises to increase doctor’s salaries to curb brain drain, The Lancet.

Over the last three decades, Kenya and many other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced rapid emigration to the developed world. Kenya is one of the African countries that has so much been affected by brain drain. This article gives an overview of brain drain in Kenya.

In Kenya, students move every year to go and study abroad but they never return back after attaining the appropriate education. They get jobs there and fail to return. Professions also move in search of jobs that pay well as compared to Kenyan jobs. More than a million Kenyan professionals live and work abroad, making the country one of the most heavily drained in Africa. Statistics released by the Government show that between 500,000 and 1.8 million Kenyans work overseas, although their skills are much needed locally (Siringi & Kimani, 2005).

Although more than 30,000 Kenyans leave for higher studies overseas, less than 9,000 of them return home on completing their learning. According to Kirui, (2005) when highly skilled people leave the country, or those who have acquired high skills do not return, it poses serious brain drain, robbing the country of essential human capacity to help in socio-economic development.

Statistics also show that 37,724 African students were enrolled in colleges and universities in the United States in 2001/2002. Some 18.8% of this students were Kenyan students. Of the 15,331 East African students from 19 countries enrolled during that same period (Kaba, 2005).

So many Kenyans have moved from their homeland to other countries. In fact, one can find Kenyans today in all parts of the developed world or rich nations, from Australia to Canada. As of 2001, there were 47,000 Kenyans in the United States, 20,600 in Canada, 15,000 in the United Kingdom, 6,900 in Australia, 5,200 in Germany and 1,300 in Sweden (Okoth, 2003).

The primary cause of Brain Drain in Kenya is the difference among countries in economic and professional opportunities, hence the imperative to move from one area to another to improve their social and economic status. Brain drain has a direct relationship to levels of education attained, and access to training and employment opportunities abroad.

Further Reading

Chu, J. (2004) How to Plug Europe’s Brain Drain, TIME, Retrieved 7^th September, 2011 from http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/

Siringi, S. (2001) Kenya government promises to increase doctor’s salaries to curb brain drain, The Lancet.

There are various situations or incidences that are associated with the existence of brain drain within a country. Some of these causes that result to brain drain as described in this article include low salaries and inefficient working condition, political instability and search for further quality education.

Causes of Brain Drain

Low Salaries and inefficient Working Conditions
Low salaries and inefficient working conditions can be taken to be a motivating factor towards a countries brain drain. Most the skilled laborers who are not well paid in their country tend to move to other countries where their skills can be fully recognized by increase in salaries or allowances in the place of work. For instance, in developed countries, researchers are provided with funds and necessary equipment to carry out study. This attracts those researchers from the developing countries who are deprived of these opportunities. As a result most scientists in underdeveloped countries who do not get easy access to laboratory facilities or sufficient funds move to those developed countries which offer these facilities (Talash, 2010).

Political Instability
Political instability in home countries makes people to loose confidence in their governments and future prospects for a better life. These are individuals who may have difficulties because of their ethnic, cultural, religion belongings or being a member of opposition political groupings in their home countries.

Political turmoil is mainly linked to the failure of economic development. As pressures of poverty, rapid population growth, disease and illiteracy and environmental degradation mount, they produce a volatile cocktail of insecurity resulting into war, civil strife, riots and other forms of political violence. This leads to the displacement of large numbers of people as migrants, refugees, or asylums to other countries. According to Papadimitriou both internal and regional conflicts, often based on religion and ethnicity, are precipitating unprecedented high levels of brain drain (Gordon, 1998).

Search for further quality education
Brian drain occurs mostly where individuals from undeveloped countries move to the developed countries in need to expand their studies. Consequently, most of these learners opt not to return to their countries but decide to dwell in the foreign countries and work after gaining the adequate skills.

Lack of proper systems in the education sector has also resulted to the inadequacy of school facilities that offer abstract ideas on what the learners intend to achieve at the end of a lesson. This has made most of them to move to other countries whose education systems are quit more improved and the schools have adequate and relevant facilities of learning. Thus, the systems in the education sector needs to be looked into. This may have a positive impact in reducing the levels of students and workers who move to other countries in search of good schooling and availability of adequate facilities to help improve their careers.

Consequences of Brain Drain

In the first instance, when individuals migrate to other countries they are more vibrant and energetic thus they play a great role in building the economy of that country in the name that they are getting greener pastures. In the long run these individuals find that these countries grow in terms of development due to the availability of qualified and skilled personnel in various fields. However, the previous country is left with no skilled personnel thus it lacks behind in terms of development and growth in the economic sector in general (Tevera, 2004).

Consistently, Brain Drain slows the rate of investments in a country. This is simply because investments move with people (Gordon, 1998). Therefore, if more people keep moving from one country to other countries, they also move with their investments thus adding up to under-development or under investment on the available local resources of the country.

Brain drain adversely affects both parts of the GDP equation. First, the size of the labor force is diminished. Second, it is agreed by most that it is the most intelligent and capable that are being lured away to the developed nations for these greater opportunities and/or higher after-tax incomes. Therefore, it can be seen that the brain drain often results in missed opportunities, reduced growth, lower employment and reduced overall tax revenue.

Further Reading

Talash, I. (2010) Causes of Brain Drain, Retrieved 9th September, 2011 from http://www.english-test.net/forum/ftopic58243.html

Gordon, A. (1998) The New Diaspora-African immigration to the U.S.A, Journal of Third World Studies, Vol. XV, pp.80-81, USA

Tevera, D. (2004) Emigration Potential of the Skills Base of Zimbabwe, Harare:Southern African Migration Project.

There are various situations or incidences that are associated with the existence of brain drain within a country. Some of these causes that result to brain drain as described in this article include low salaries and inefficient working condition, political instability and search for further quality education.

Causes of Brain Drain

Low Salaries and inefficient Working Conditions
Low salaries and inefficient working conditions can be taken to be a motivating factor towards a countries brain drain. Most the skilled laborers who are not well paid in their country tend to move to other countries where their skills can be fully recognized by increase in salaries or allowances in the place of work. For instance, in developed countries, researchers are provided with funds and necessary equipment to carry out study. This attracts those researchers from the developing countries who are deprived of these opportunities. As a result most scientists in underdeveloped countries who do not get easy access to laboratory facilities or sufficient funds move to those developed countries which offer these facilities (Talash, 2010).

Political Instability
Political instability in home countries makes people to loose confidence in their governments and future prospects for a better life. These are individuals who may have difficulties because of their ethnic, cultural, religion belongings or being a member of opposition political groupings in their home countries.

Political turmoil is mainly linked to the failure of economic development. As pressures of poverty, rapid population growth, disease and illiteracy and environmental degradation mount, they produce a volatile cocktail of insecurity resulting into war, civil strife, riots and other forms of political violence. This leads to the displacement of large numbers of people as migrants, refugees, or asylums to other countries. According to Papadimitriou both internal and regional conflicts, often based on religion and ethnicity, are precipitating unprecedented high levels of brain drain (Gordon, 1998).

Search for further quality education
Brian drain occurs mostly where individuals from undeveloped countries move to the developed countries in need to expand their studies. Consequently, most of these learners opt not to return to their countries but decide to dwell in the foreign countries and work after gaining the adequate skills.

Lack of proper systems in the education sector has also resulted to the inadequacy of school facilities that offer abstract ideas on what the learners intend to achieve at the end of a lesson. This has made most of them to move to other countries whose education systems are quit more improved and the schools have adequate and relevant facilities of learning. Thus, the systems in the education sector needs to be looked into. This may have a positive impact in reducing the levels of students and workers who move to other countries in search of good schooling and availability of adequate facilities to help improve their careers.

Consequences of Brain Drain

In the first instance, when individuals migrate to other countries they are more vibrant and energetic thus they play a great role in building the economy of that country in the name that they are getting greener pastures. In the long run these individuals find that these countries grow in terms of development due to the availability of qualified and skilled personnel in various fields. However, the previous country is left with no skilled personnel thus it lacks behind in terms of development and growth in the economic sector in general (Tevera, 2004).

Consistently, Brain Drain slows the rate of investments in a country. This is simply because investments move with people (Gordon, 1998). Therefore, if more people keep moving from one country to other countries, they also move with their investments thus adding up to under-development or under investment on the available local resources of the country.

Brain drain adversely affects both parts of the GDP equation. First, the size of the labor force is diminished. Second, it is agreed by most that it is the most intelligent and capable that are being lured away to the developed nations for these greater opportunities and/or higher after-tax incomes. Therefore, it can be seen that the brain drain often results in missed opportunities, reduced growth, lower employment and reduced overall tax revenue.

Further Reading

Talash, I. (2010) Causes of Brain Drain, Retrieved 9th September, 2011 from http://www.english-test.net/forum/ftopic58243.html

Gordon, A. (1998) The New Diaspora-African immigration to the U.S.A, Journal of Third World Studies, Vol. XV, pp.80-81, USA

Tevera, D. (2004) Emigration Potential of the Skills Base of Zimbabwe, Harare:Southern African Migration Project.