Author: admn

Something needs to be done in order to stop this deteriorating factor of brain drain in the country. This article briefly presents a discussion on the ways through which brain drain can be reduced.

Mutual Agreement

A mutual agreement has to be reached by the developed and the developing nations on how to reduce the pull and push factors that make professionals to flee Africa and Asia to Europe and America. Secondly, powerful nationals like the US should stop using special visas and packages to attract talented professionals from their native countries. Thirdly, African nations should try and understand the contributions of professionals by improving their terms of service.

Updating school curriculums

School Curriculums should be updated to reflect the African needs for the 21st century. African schools produce more graduates in the arts and humanities than in science and engineering. Since science and technology can increase the standards of living, it makes more sense to produce more scientists and engineers (Emeagwali, 1999). As such, school curriculum should be re-designed to meet the industrial needs.

Good governance

Good governance at the national and international level, especially maintenance of reasonable security for peoples’ lives and property is essential for economic progress. Thus, withholding political and economical emigrants, who blame their government’s failure for political unrest and stagnant economic growth, is possible if good governance is maintained.

Quality Education

Education plays a powerful role especially in the growing problems of international migration. Therefore, offering quality education in a country and expanding a better educational infrastructure can definitely prevent emigrants who are seeking a higher education abroad.

Withholding certificates

Seeking alternative measures for return of warranty from the beneficiaries, such as the withholding of academic degrees until the graduates return and are willing to serve the people could serve as another considerable alternative (Emeagwali, 1999).

Taxing emigrants

Taxing emigrants who are indigenously trained in home countries could also serve as a measure. This is however a sensitive issue and may sound absurd, and may potentially infringe on the basic human right and freedom to choose the nature and location of individuals where to live and where to work. Thus, it must be agreed upon the international community and international laws.

Conclusion

The primary cause of brain drain is the difference among countries in economic and professional opportunities, hence the imperative to move from one area to another to improve their social and economic status. Brain drain has a direct relationship to levels of education attained, and access to training and employment opportunities abroad. Economic globalization, lack of development and political instability, industrialized nations policies, and linguistics and historical ties are major factors that account for Third World movement of intellectual, skilled laborers to developed countries in general. Existence of brain drain in a country has negative impacts on the economy of a country thus much needs to be done so as to save a country’s economy from deteriorating due to lack of adequate skilled labor available in the market.

References

Emeagwali, P. (1999) Brain Drain from the African Continent, Retrieved 7^th September, 2011 from http://emeagwali.com/interviews/brain-drain/brain drain-of-african-scientists-the-world-today-bbc-british-broadcasting-corporation.html.

Something needs to be done in order to stop this deteriorating factor of brain drain in the country. This article briefly presents a discussion on the ways through which brain drain can be reduced.

Mutual Agreement

A mutual agreement has to be reached by the developed and the developing nations on how to reduce the pull and push factors that make professionals to flee Africa and Asia to Europe and America. Secondly, powerful nationals like the US should stop using special visas and packages to attract talented professionals from their native countries. Thirdly, African nations should try and understand the contributions of professionals by improving their terms of service.

Updating school curriculums

School Curriculums should be updated to reflect the African needs for the 21st century. African schools produce more graduates in the arts and humanities than in science and engineering. Since science and technology can increase the standards of living, it makes more sense to produce more scientists and engineers (Emeagwali, 1999). As such, school curriculum should be re-designed to meet the industrial needs.

Good governance

Good governance at the national and international level, especially maintenance of reasonable security for peoples’ lives and property is essential for economic progress. Thus, withholding political and economical emigrants, who blame their government’s failure for political unrest and stagnant economic growth, is possible if good governance is maintained.

Quality Education

Education plays a powerful role especially in the growing problems of international migration. Therefore, offering quality education in a country and expanding a better educational infrastructure can definitely prevent emigrants who are seeking a higher education abroad.

Withholding certificates

Seeking alternative measures for return of warranty from the beneficiaries, such as the withholding of academic degrees until the graduates return and are willing to serve the people could serve as another considerable alternative (Emeagwali, 1999).

Taxing emigrants

Taxing emigrants who are indigenously trained in home countries could also serve as a measure. This is however a sensitive issue and may sound absurd, and may potentially infringe on the basic human right and freedom to choose the nature and location of individuals where to live and where to work. Thus, it must be agreed upon the international community and international laws.

Conclusion

The primary cause of brain drain is the difference among countries in economic and professional opportunities, hence the imperative to move from one area to another to improve their social and economic status. Brain drain has a direct relationship to levels of education attained, and access to training and employment opportunities abroad. Economic globalization, lack of development and political instability, industrialized nations policies, and linguistics and historical ties are major factors that account for Third World movement of intellectual, skilled laborers to developed countries in general. Existence of brain drain in a country has negative impacts on the economy of a country thus much needs to be done so as to save a country’s economy from deteriorating due to lack of adequate skilled labor available in the market.

References

Emeagwali, P. (1999) Brain Drain from the African Continent, Retrieved 7^th September, 2011 from http://emeagwali.com/interviews/brain-drain/brain drain-of-african-scientists-the-world-today-bbc-british-broadcasting-corporation.html.

This article explores the dialogue and explanation as teaching methods in Adult Education. Adult education usually involves one-on-one conversation in order for them to understand concepts.

Dialogue Method of Teaching Adults
Dialogue can get out of hand unless ground rules are set. These ground rules might include; learners raising their hand and wait for permission to air their views and not  jumping in and giving views which in most cases might result in noise, or the other ground rule might be for the learners to wait until they are picked upon by their teacher to express their views. It is also important to ask solicit opposing view-points which encourages participation (Reinsmith, 1994).

Dialogue doesn’t have to be confined to the classroom. The internet offers wonderful opportunities for additional dialogue. The Internet allows us to extend cooperative problem solving outside of the immediate community of adult learners to a multicultural community.

Explanation Method of Teaching Adults
Explaining as a teaching method in adult education is form similar to lecturing. Lecturing is teaching by giving a discourse on a specific subject that is open to the adult learners, usually given in the classroom. This can also be associated with modeling whre by this is used as a visual aid to learning. Adult learners can visualize an object or problem, then use reasoning and hypothesis to determine an answer.

In a lecture a student has the opportunity to tackle two types of learning. Not only can explaining (lecture) help an adult learner through the speech of the teacher, but if the teacher is to include visuals in form of overheads or slide shows, his/her lecture can have duality. Although an adult learner might only profit substantially from one form of teaching, all adult learners profit from the different types of learning. (Brookfield 1986).

There are various methods used in teaching adult learners the major ones has been discussed in this article. However there are various other methods that can still be used to teach adult learners this include Scaffolding which involves empowering students with their own authority for instance giving a task which they need to accomplish. Praxis which involves the idea of doing while learning, constructivism is another method for teaching adults where learners gain deep understanding when they act on new information with their present knowledge and resolve any discrepancies which arise.

References
Brookfield, S D. (1986). Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning, Jossey-Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, 1986

Reinsmith W.A. (1994). Two Great Professors: Formidable Intellects with Affection for
Students, College Teaching, Vol. 42, No. 4, Fall.

This article explores the dialogue and explanation as teaching methods in Adult Education. Adult education usually involves one-on-one conversation in order for them to understand concepts.

Dialogue Method of Teaching Adults
Dialogue can get out of hand unless ground rules are set. These ground rules might include; learners raising their hand and wait for permission to air their views and not  jumping in and giving views which in most cases might result in noise, or the other ground rule might be for the learners to wait until they are picked upon by their teacher to express their views. It is also important to ask solicit opposing view-points which encourages participation (Reinsmith, 1994).

Dialogue doesn’t have to be confined to the classroom. The internet offers wonderful opportunities for additional dialogue. The Internet allows us to extend cooperative problem solving outside of the immediate community of adult learners to a multicultural community.

Explanation Method of Teaching Adults
Explaining as a teaching method in adult education is form similar to lecturing. Lecturing is teaching by giving a discourse on a specific subject that is open to the adult learners, usually given in the classroom. This can also be associated with modeling whre by this is used as a visual aid to learning. Adult learners can visualize an object or problem, then use reasoning and hypothesis to determine an answer.

In a lecture a student has the opportunity to tackle two types of learning. Not only can explaining (lecture) help an adult learner through the speech of the teacher, but if the teacher is to include visuals in form of overheads or slide shows, his/her lecture can have duality. Although an adult learner might only profit substantially from one form of teaching, all adult learners profit from the different types of learning. (Brookfield 1986).

There are various methods used in teaching adult learners the major ones has been discussed in this article. However there are various other methods that can still be used to teach adult learners this include Scaffolding which involves empowering students with their own authority for instance giving a task which they need to accomplish. Praxis which involves the idea of doing while learning, constructivism is another method for teaching adults where learners gain deep understanding when they act on new information with their present knowledge and resolve any discrepancies which arise.

References
Brookfield, S D. (1986). Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning, Jossey-Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, 1986

Reinsmith W.A. (1994). Two Great Professors: Formidable Intellects with Affection for
Students, College Teaching, Vol. 42, No. 4, Fall.

Over the last three decades, Kenya and many other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced rapid emigration to the developed world. Kenya is one of the African countries that has so much been affected by brain drain. This article gives an overview of brain drain in Kenya.

In Kenya, students move every year to go and study abroad but they never return back after attaining the appropriate education. They get jobs there and fail to return. Professions also move in search of jobs that pay well as compared to Kenyan jobs. More than a million Kenyan professionals live and work abroad, making the country one of the most heavily drained in Africa. Statistics released by the Government show that between 500,000 and 1.8 million Kenyans work overseas, although their skills are much needed locally (Siringi & Kimani, 2005).

Although more than 30,000 Kenyans leave for higher studies overseas, less than 9,000 of them return home on completing their learning. According to Kirui, (2005) when highly skilled people leave the country, or those who have acquired high skills do not return, it poses serious brain drain, robbing the country of essential human capacity to help in socio-economic development.

Statistics also show that 37,724 African students were enrolled in colleges and universities in the United States in 2001/2002. Some 18.8% of this students were Kenyan students. Of the 15,331 East African students from 19 countries enrolled during that same period (Kaba, 2005).

So many Kenyans have moved from their homeland to other countries. In fact, one can find Kenyans today in all parts of the developed world or rich nations, from Australia to Canada. As of 2001, there were 47,000 Kenyans in the United States, 20,600 in Canada, 15,000 in the United Kingdom, 6,900 in Australia, 5,200 in Germany and 1,300 in Sweden (Okoth, 2003).

The primary cause of Brain Drain in Kenya is the difference among countries in economic and professional opportunities, hence the imperative to move from one area to another to improve their social and economic status. Brain drain has a direct relationship to levels of education attained, and access to training and employment opportunities abroad.

Further Reading

Chu, J. (2004) How to Plug Europe’s Brain Drain, TIME, Retrieved 7^th September, 2011 from http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/

Siringi, S. (2001) Kenya government promises to increase doctor’s salaries to curb brain drain, The Lancet.

Over the last three decades, Kenya and many other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced rapid emigration to the developed world. Kenya is one of the African countries that has so much been affected by brain drain. This article gives an overview of brain drain in Kenya.

In Kenya, students move every year to go and study abroad but they never return back after attaining the appropriate education. They get jobs there and fail to return. Professions also move in search of jobs that pay well as compared to Kenyan jobs. More than a million Kenyan professionals live and work abroad, making the country one of the most heavily drained in Africa. Statistics released by the Government show that between 500,000 and 1.8 million Kenyans work overseas, although their skills are much needed locally (Siringi & Kimani, 2005).

Although more than 30,000 Kenyans leave for higher studies overseas, less than 9,000 of them return home on completing their learning. According to Kirui, (2005) when highly skilled people leave the country, or those who have acquired high skills do not return, it poses serious brain drain, robbing the country of essential human capacity to help in socio-economic development.

Statistics also show that 37,724 African students were enrolled in colleges and universities in the United States in 2001/2002. Some 18.8% of this students were Kenyan students. Of the 15,331 East African students from 19 countries enrolled during that same period (Kaba, 2005).

So many Kenyans have moved from their homeland to other countries. In fact, one can find Kenyans today in all parts of the developed world or rich nations, from Australia to Canada. As of 2001, there were 47,000 Kenyans in the United States, 20,600 in Canada, 15,000 in the United Kingdom, 6,900 in Australia, 5,200 in Germany and 1,300 in Sweden (Okoth, 2003).

The primary cause of Brain Drain in Kenya is the difference among countries in economic and professional opportunities, hence the imperative to move from one area to another to improve their social and economic status. Brain drain has a direct relationship to levels of education attained, and access to training and employment opportunities abroad.

Further Reading

Chu, J. (2004) How to Plug Europe’s Brain Drain, TIME, Retrieved 7^th September, 2011 from http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/

Siringi, S. (2001) Kenya government promises to increase doctor’s salaries to curb brain drain, The Lancet.

There are various situations or incidences that are associated with the existence of brain drain within a country. Some of these causes that result to brain drain as described in this article include low salaries and inefficient working condition, political instability and search for further quality education.

Causes of Brain Drain

Low Salaries and inefficient Working Conditions
Low salaries and inefficient working conditions can be taken to be a motivating factor towards a countries brain drain. Most the skilled laborers who are not well paid in their country tend to move to other countries where their skills can be fully recognized by increase in salaries or allowances in the place of work. For instance, in developed countries, researchers are provided with funds and necessary equipment to carry out study. This attracts those researchers from the developing countries who are deprived of these opportunities. As a result most scientists in underdeveloped countries who do not get easy access to laboratory facilities or sufficient funds move to those developed countries which offer these facilities (Talash, 2010).

Political Instability
Political instability in home countries makes people to loose confidence in their governments and future prospects for a better life. These are individuals who may have difficulties because of their ethnic, cultural, religion belongings or being a member of opposition political groupings in their home countries.

Political turmoil is mainly linked to the failure of economic development. As pressures of poverty, rapid population growth, disease and illiteracy and environmental degradation mount, they produce a volatile cocktail of insecurity resulting into war, civil strife, riots and other forms of political violence. This leads to the displacement of large numbers of people as migrants, refugees, or asylums to other countries. According to Papadimitriou both internal and regional conflicts, often based on religion and ethnicity, are precipitating unprecedented high levels of brain drain (Gordon, 1998).

Search for further quality education
Brian drain occurs mostly where individuals from undeveloped countries move to the developed countries in need to expand their studies. Consequently, most of these learners opt not to return to their countries but decide to dwell in the foreign countries and work after gaining the adequate skills.

Lack of proper systems in the education sector has also resulted to the inadequacy of school facilities that offer abstract ideas on what the learners intend to achieve at the end of a lesson. This has made most of them to move to other countries whose education systems are quit more improved and the schools have adequate and relevant facilities of learning. Thus, the systems in the education sector needs to be looked into. This may have a positive impact in reducing the levels of students and workers who move to other countries in search of good schooling and availability of adequate facilities to help improve their careers.

Consequences of Brain Drain

In the first instance, when individuals migrate to other countries they are more vibrant and energetic thus they play a great role in building the economy of that country in the name that they are getting greener pastures. In the long run these individuals find that these countries grow in terms of development due to the availability of qualified and skilled personnel in various fields. However, the previous country is left with no skilled personnel thus it lacks behind in terms of development and growth in the economic sector in general (Tevera, 2004).

Consistently, Brain Drain slows the rate of investments in a country. This is simply because investments move with people (Gordon, 1998). Therefore, if more people keep moving from one country to other countries, they also move with their investments thus adding up to under-development or under investment on the available local resources of the country.

Brain drain adversely affects both parts of the GDP equation. First, the size of the labor force is diminished. Second, it is agreed by most that it is the most intelligent and capable that are being lured away to the developed nations for these greater opportunities and/or higher after-tax incomes. Therefore, it can be seen that the brain drain often results in missed opportunities, reduced growth, lower employment and reduced overall tax revenue.

Further Reading

Talash, I. (2010) Causes of Brain Drain, Retrieved 9th September, 2011 from http://www.english-test.net/forum/ftopic58243.html

Gordon, A. (1998) The New Diaspora-African immigration to the U.S.A, Journal of Third World Studies, Vol. XV, pp.80-81, USA

Tevera, D. (2004) Emigration Potential of the Skills Base of Zimbabwe, Harare:Southern African Migration Project.

There are various situations or incidences that are associated with the existence of brain drain within a country. Some of these causes that result to brain drain as described in this article include low salaries and inefficient working condition, political instability and search for further quality education.

Causes of Brain Drain

Low Salaries and inefficient Working Conditions
Low salaries and inefficient working conditions can be taken to be a motivating factor towards a countries brain drain. Most the skilled laborers who are not well paid in their country tend to move to other countries where their skills can be fully recognized by increase in salaries or allowances in the place of work. For instance, in developed countries, researchers are provided with funds and necessary equipment to carry out study. This attracts those researchers from the developing countries who are deprived of these opportunities. As a result most scientists in underdeveloped countries who do not get easy access to laboratory facilities or sufficient funds move to those developed countries which offer these facilities (Talash, 2010).

Political Instability
Political instability in home countries makes people to loose confidence in their governments and future prospects for a better life. These are individuals who may have difficulties because of their ethnic, cultural, religion belongings or being a member of opposition political groupings in their home countries.

Political turmoil is mainly linked to the failure of economic development. As pressures of poverty, rapid population growth, disease and illiteracy and environmental degradation mount, they produce a volatile cocktail of insecurity resulting into war, civil strife, riots and other forms of political violence. This leads to the displacement of large numbers of people as migrants, refugees, or asylums to other countries. According to Papadimitriou both internal and regional conflicts, often based on religion and ethnicity, are precipitating unprecedented high levels of brain drain (Gordon, 1998).

Search for further quality education
Brian drain occurs mostly where individuals from undeveloped countries move to the developed countries in need to expand their studies. Consequently, most of these learners opt not to return to their countries but decide to dwell in the foreign countries and work after gaining the adequate skills.

Lack of proper systems in the education sector has also resulted to the inadequacy of school facilities that offer abstract ideas on what the learners intend to achieve at the end of a lesson. This has made most of them to move to other countries whose education systems are quit more improved and the schools have adequate and relevant facilities of learning. Thus, the systems in the education sector needs to be looked into. This may have a positive impact in reducing the levels of students and workers who move to other countries in search of good schooling and availability of adequate facilities to help improve their careers.

Consequences of Brain Drain

In the first instance, when individuals migrate to other countries they are more vibrant and energetic thus they play a great role in building the economy of that country in the name that they are getting greener pastures. In the long run these individuals find that these countries grow in terms of development due to the availability of qualified and skilled personnel in various fields. However, the previous country is left with no skilled personnel thus it lacks behind in terms of development and growth in the economic sector in general (Tevera, 2004).

Consistently, Brain Drain slows the rate of investments in a country. This is simply because investments move with people (Gordon, 1998). Therefore, if more people keep moving from one country to other countries, they also move with their investments thus adding up to under-development or under investment on the available local resources of the country.

Brain drain adversely affects both parts of the GDP equation. First, the size of the labor force is diminished. Second, it is agreed by most that it is the most intelligent and capable that are being lured away to the developed nations for these greater opportunities and/or higher after-tax incomes. Therefore, it can be seen that the brain drain often results in missed opportunities, reduced growth, lower employment and reduced overall tax revenue.

Further Reading

Talash, I. (2010) Causes of Brain Drain, Retrieved 9th September, 2011 from http://www.english-test.net/forum/ftopic58243.html

Gordon, A. (1998) The New Diaspora-African immigration to the U.S.A, Journal of Third World Studies, Vol. XV, pp.80-81, USA

Tevera, D. (2004) Emigration Potential of the Skills Base of Zimbabwe, Harare:Southern African Migration Project.

This article briefly expounds on the historical background of a famous Russian named Catherine II, and the way she transformed the Russian empire through her reign.

Background of Catherine the Great

Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great was born in Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia on 2nd May 1729 as daughter to Christian August – Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. She received her education chiefly from a French governess and from tutors (Reddaway, 1997). She reigned as Empress of Russia from 9th July 1762 after the assassination of her husband, Peter III, just after the end of the Seven Years’ War until her death on 17th November 1796 (Rodger, 2005).

Under her direct governing, the Russian Empire expanded, improved its administration, and continued to modernize along Western European lines. Catherine’s rule re-vitalized Russia, which grew stronger than ever and became recognized as one of the great powers of Europe. She had successes in foreign policy and oversaw sometimes brutal reprisals in the wake of rebellion – most notably Pugachev’s Rebellion (Isabel, 1979). Catherine the great was a legendary figure.

Catherine, throughout her long reign, took many lovers, often elevating them to high positions for as long as they held her interest, and then pensioning them off with large estates and gifts of serfs. The percentage of state money spent on the court increased from 10.4% in 1767 to 11.4% in 1781 to 13.5% in 1795.Just as the church supported her hoping to get their land back, Catherine bought the support of the Bureaucracy by making promotion up the 14 ranks automatic after a certain time period, regardless of position or merit. Thus, the bureaucracy was populated with time servers (Reddaway, 1931).

Reign of Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

Catherine II (Russian), also known as Catherine the Great reigned as Empress of Russia from 9th July 1762 after the assassination of her husband, Peter III, just after the end of the Seven Years’ War until her death on 17th November 1796. She was thirty-three years old when she ascended the Russian throne. She had survived a loveless marriage, in which “ambition alone sustained her” (Hans, 1961). Ignored by her husband, Peter III, she dedicated her time to learning the Russian language, studying the writings of the philosophies, and adapting cleverly to her new environment skills which constitute important aspects of her reign.

During her reign, Catherine extended the borders of the Russian Empire in south reion and west region to absorb New Russia, Crimea, Northern Caucasus, Right-Bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Courland. The main two powers were the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. She added some 200,000 miles² (approximately 518,000 km²) to Russian territory.

Catherine agreed to a commercial treaty with Great Britain in 1766, but stopped as soon a s she realized there will full military alliance. Although she could see the benefits of Britain’s friendship, she was wary of Britain’s increased power following their victory in the Seven Years War, which threatened the European Balance of Power.

Catherine annexed the Crimea in 1783, nearly nine years after the Crimean Khanate had gained nominal independence, which had been guaranteed by Russia, from the Ottoman Empire. As a result of her first war against the Turks, the palace of the Crimean khans passed into the hands of the Russians. In 1786, Catherine conducted a triumphal procession in the Crimea, which helped provoke the next Russo-Turkish War.The Ottomans re-started hostilities in the second Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792). This war proved catastrophic for the Ottomans and ended with the Treaty of Jassy (1792), which legitimized the Russian claim to the Crimea and granted the Yedisan region to Russia.

From 1788 to 1790 Russia fought in the Russo-Swedish War against Sweden, a conflict that was fueled by her cousin, King Gustav III of Sweden. He expected to overtake the Russian armies still engaged in war against the Ottoman Turks and hoped to strike Saint Petersburg directly. But Russia’s Baltic Fleet checked the Royal Swedish navy in a tied battle off Hogland (July 1788), and the Swedish army failed to advance. After the decisive defeat of the Russian fleet at the Battle of Svensksund in 1790, the parties signed the Treaty of Värälä on 14th August 1790 returning all conquered territories to their respective owners and confirming the Treaty of Abo. Peace was ensued for 20 years, which was aided by the assassination of Gustav III in 1792.

References

Rodger A.M (2005) Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815, London, p.328

Isabel M. (1979) the Foundation of the Russian Educational System by Catherine II, Slavonic and East European Review: 369-395

Reddaway, W. F. (1931) Documents of Catherine the Great, The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767 in the English Text of 1768, Cambridge University Press, (England), (Reprint (1971)

Hans, N. (1961) Dumaresq, Brown and Some Early Educational Projects of Catherine II”, Slavonic and East European Review: pg 229-235

This article briefly expounds on the historical background of a famous Russian named Catherine II, and the way she transformed the Russian empire through her reign.

Background of Catherine the Great

Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great was born in Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia on 2nd May 1729 as daughter to Christian August – Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. She received her education chiefly from a French governess and from tutors (Reddaway, 1997). She reigned as Empress of Russia from 9th July 1762 after the assassination of her husband, Peter III, just after the end of the Seven Years’ War until her death on 17th November 1796 (Rodger, 2005).

Under her direct governing, the Russian Empire expanded, improved its administration, and continued to modernize along Western European lines. Catherine’s rule re-vitalized Russia, which grew stronger than ever and became recognized as one of the great powers of Europe. She had successes in foreign policy and oversaw sometimes brutal reprisals in the wake of rebellion – most notably Pugachev’s Rebellion (Isabel, 1979). Catherine the great was a legendary figure.

Catherine, throughout her long reign, took many lovers, often elevating them to high positions for as long as they held her interest, and then pensioning them off with large estates and gifts of serfs. The percentage of state money spent on the court increased from 10.4% in 1767 to 11.4% in 1781 to 13.5% in 1795.Just as the church supported her hoping to get their land back, Catherine bought the support of the Bureaucracy by making promotion up the 14 ranks automatic after a certain time period, regardless of position or merit. Thus, the bureaucracy was populated with time servers (Reddaway, 1931).

Reign of Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

Catherine II (Russian), also known as Catherine the Great reigned as Empress of Russia from 9th July 1762 after the assassination of her husband, Peter III, just after the end of the Seven Years’ War until her death on 17th November 1796. She was thirty-three years old when she ascended the Russian throne. She had survived a loveless marriage, in which “ambition alone sustained her” (Hans, 1961). Ignored by her husband, Peter III, she dedicated her time to learning the Russian language, studying the writings of the philosophies, and adapting cleverly to her new environment skills which constitute important aspects of her reign.

During her reign, Catherine extended the borders of the Russian Empire in south reion and west region to absorb New Russia, Crimea, Northern Caucasus, Right-Bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Courland. The main two powers were the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. She added some 200,000 miles² (approximately 518,000 km²) to Russian territory.

Catherine agreed to a commercial treaty with Great Britain in 1766, but stopped as soon a s she realized there will full military alliance. Although she could see the benefits of Britain’s friendship, she was wary of Britain’s increased power following their victory in the Seven Years War, which threatened the European Balance of Power.

Catherine annexed the Crimea in 1783, nearly nine years after the Crimean Khanate had gained nominal independence, which had been guaranteed by Russia, from the Ottoman Empire. As a result of her first war against the Turks, the palace of the Crimean khans passed into the hands of the Russians. In 1786, Catherine conducted a triumphal procession in the Crimea, which helped provoke the next Russo-Turkish War.The Ottomans re-started hostilities in the second Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792). This war proved catastrophic for the Ottomans and ended with the Treaty of Jassy (1792), which legitimized the Russian claim to the Crimea and granted the Yedisan region to Russia.

From 1788 to 1790 Russia fought in the Russo-Swedish War against Sweden, a conflict that was fueled by her cousin, King Gustav III of Sweden. He expected to overtake the Russian armies still engaged in war against the Ottoman Turks and hoped to strike Saint Petersburg directly. But Russia’s Baltic Fleet checked the Royal Swedish navy in a tied battle off Hogland (July 1788), and the Swedish army failed to advance. After the decisive defeat of the Russian fleet at the Battle of Svensksund in 1790, the parties signed the Treaty of Värälä on 14th August 1790 returning all conquered territories to their respective owners and confirming the Treaty of Abo. Peace was ensued for 20 years, which was aided by the assassination of Gustav III in 1792.

References

Rodger A.M (2005) Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815, London, p.328

Isabel M. (1979) the Foundation of the Russian Educational System by Catherine II, Slavonic and East European Review: 369-395

Reddaway, W. F. (1931) Documents of Catherine the Great, The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767 in the English Text of 1768, Cambridge University Press, (England), (Reprint (1971)

Hans, N. (1961) Dumaresq, Brown and Some Early Educational Projects of Catherine II”, Slavonic and East European Review: pg 229-235